Estudiantes Fundamentos de Contabilidad Financiera II
Por favor consultar la lectura en inglés The financial statements ubicada en este blog y posterirmente dar respuesta en la siguiente dirección: http://agerencial.wikispaces.com a las preguntas sugeridas.
viernes, 6 de noviembre de 2009
Power Point
El adecuado uso del Power Point
Academia O Somnolencia
View more presentations from Sonia Vargas.
jueves, 22 de octubre de 2009
Análisis de Estados Financieros
Este podcast contiene elementos suficientes para analizar e interpretar los estados finacnieros de una compañía.
viernes, 25 de septiembre de 2009
What is the BSC
The Balanced Scorecard (BSC) is a performance management tool which began as a concept for measuring whether the smaller-scale operational activities of a company are aligned with its larger-scale objectives in terms of vision and strategy.
By focusing not only on financial outcomes but also on the operational, marketing and developmental inputs to these, the Balanced Scorecard helps provide a more comprehensive view of a business, which in turn helps organizations act in their best long-term interests.
Organizations were encouraged to measure, in addition to financial outputs, those factors which influenced the financial outputs. For example, process performance, market share / penetration, long term learning and skills development, and so on.
The underlying rationale is that organizations cannot directly influence financial outcomes, as these are "lag" measures, and that the use of financial measures alone to inform the strategic control of the firm is unwise. Organizations should instead also measure those areas where direct management intervention is possible. In so doing, the early versions of the Balanced Scorecard helped organizations achieve a degree of "balance" in selection of performance measures. In practice, early Scorecards achieved this balance by encouraging managers to select measures from three additional categories or perspectives: "Customer," "Internal Business Processes" and "Learning and Growth."
History
In 1992, Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton began publicizing the Balanced Scorecard through a series of journal articles. In 1996, they published the book The Balanced Scorecard.
Since the original concept was introduced, Balanced Scorecards have become a fertile field of theory, research and consulting practice. The Balanced Scorecard has evolved considerably from its roots as a measure selection framework. While the underlying principles were sound, many aspects of Kaplan & Norton's original approach were unworkable in practice. Both in firms associated with Kaplan & Norton (Renaissance Solutions Inc. and BSCOL), and elsewhere (Cepro in Sweden, and 2GC Active Management in the UK), the Balanced Scorecard has changed so that there is now much greater emphasis on the design process than previously. There has also been a rapid growth in consulting offerings linked to Balanced Scorecards at the level of branding only. Kaplan & Norton themselves revisited Balanced Scorecards with the benefit of a decade's experience since the original article.
Use
Implementing Balanced Scorecards typically includes four processes:
1. Translating the vision into operational goals;
2. Communicating the vision and link it to individual performance;
3. Business planning; index Setting
4. Feedback and learning, and adjusting the strategy accordingly.
The Balanced Scorecard is a framework, or what can be best characterized as a “strategic management system” that claims to incorporate all quantitative and abstract measures of true importance to the enterprise. According to Kaplan and Norton, “The Balanced Scorecard provides managers with the instrumentation they need to navigate to future competitive success”.
Many books and articles referring to Balanced Scorecards confuse the design process elements and the Balanced Scorecard itself. In particular, it is common for people to refer to a “strategic linkage model” or “strategy map” as being a Balanced Scorecard.
Although it helps focus managers' attention on strategic issues and the management of the implementation of strategy, it is important to remember that the Balanced Scorecard itself has no role in the formation of strategy. In fact, Balanced Scorecards can comfortably co-exist with strategic planning systems and other tools.
Original methodology
The earliest Balanced Scorecards comprised simple tables broken into four sections - typically these "perspectives" were labeled "Financial", "Customer", "Internal Business Processes", and "Learning & Growth". Designing the Balanced Scorecard required selecting five or six good measures for each perspective.
Many authors have since suggested alternative headings for these perspectives, and also suggested using either additional or fewer perspectives. These suggestions were notably triggered by a recognition that different but equivalent headings would yield alternative sets of measures. The major design challenge faced with this type of Balanced Scorecard is justifying the choice of measures made. "Of all the measures you could have chosen, why did you choose these?" This common question is hard to ask using this type of design process. If users are not confident that the measures within the Balanced Scorecard are well chosen, they will have less confidence in the information it provides. Although less common, these early-style Balanced Scorecards are still designed and used today.
In short, early-style Balanced Scorecards are hard to design in a way that builds confidence that they are well designed. Because of this, many are abandoned soon after completion.
Improved methodology
In the mid 1990s, an improved design method emerged. In the new method, measures are selected based on a set of "strategic objectives" plotted on a "strategic linkage model" or "strategy map". With this modified approach, the strategic objectives are typically distributed across a similar set of "perspectives", as is found in the earlier designs, but the design question becomes slightly less abstract.
Managers have to identify five or six goals within each of the perspectives, and then demonstrate some inter-linking between these goals by plotting causal links on the diagram. Having reached some consensus about the objectives and how they inter-relate, the Balanced Scorecard is devised by choosing suitable measures for each objective. This type of approach provides greater contextual justification for the measures chosen, and is generally easier for managers to work through. This style of Balanced Scorecard has been commonly used since 1996 or so.
Several design issues still remain with this enhanced approach to Balanced Scorecard design, but it has been much more successful than the design approach it superseded.
In the late 1990s, the design approach had evolved yet again. One problem with the "2nd generation" design approach described above was that the plotting of causal links amongst twenty or so medium-term strategic goals was still a relatively abstract activity. In practice it ignored the fact that opportunities to intervene, to influence strategic goals are, and need to be anchored in the "now;" in current and real management activity. Secondly, the need to "roll forward" and test the impact of these goals necessitated the creation of an additional design instrument; the Vision or Destination Statement. This device was a statement of what "strategic success," or the "strategic end-state" looked like. It was quickly realised, that if a Destination Statement was created at the beginning of the design process then it was much easier to select strategic Activity and Outcome objectives to respond to it. Measures and targets could then be selected to track the achievement of these objectives.
In 2007, the 4th Generation was evolved in the work by Hannabarger, Buchman and Economy. They created linkages between the Strategic, Operational and Tactical levels within organizations through Scorecards and Dashboards that provide drill down / up capability to identify sources and root causes for under-performing scorecard metrics. Soon after this work, Kaplan and Norton revised their approach and acknowledged it had lacked the ability to give focus on measures to the here and now, day-to-day operational and tactical levels within organizations that the Hannabarger, Buchman and Economy work provides.
Popularity
Kaplan and Norton found that companies are using Balanced Scorecards to:
· Drive strategy execution;
· Clarify strategy and make strategy operational;
· Identify and align strategic initiatives;
· Link budget with strategy;
· Align the organization with strategy;
· Conduct periodic strategic performance reviews to learn about and improve strategy.
In 1997, Kurtzman found that 64 percent of the companies questioned were measuring performance from a number of perspectives in a similar way to the Balanced Scorecard.
Balanced Scorecards have been implemented by government agencies, military units, business units and corporations as a whole, non-profit organizations, and schools.
Many examples of Balanced Scorecards can be found via Web searches. However, adapting one organization's Balanced Scorecard to another is generally not advised by theorists, who believe that much of the benefit of the Balanced Scorecard comes from the implementation method. Indeed, it could be argued that many failures in the early days of Balanced Scorecard could be attributed to this problem, in that early Balanced Scorecards were often designed remotely by consultants. Managers did not trust, and so failed to engage with and use these measure suites created by people lacking knowledge of the organisation and management responsibility.
Variants, alternatives and criticisms
Since the late 1990s, various alternatives to the Balanced Scorecard have emerged, such as The Performance Prism, Results Based Management and Third Generation Balanced Scorecard. These tools seek to solve some of the remaining design issues, in particular issues relating to the design of sets of Balanced Scorecards to use across an organization, and issues in setting targets for the measures selected.
Applied Information Economics (AIE) has been researched as an alternative to Balanced Scorecards. In 2000, the Federal CIO Council commissioned a study to compare the two methods by funding studies in side-by-side projects in two different agencies. The Dept. of Veterans Affairs used AIE and the US Dept. of Agriculture applied Balanced Scorecards. The resulting report found that while AIE was much more sophisticated, AIE actually took slightly less time to utilize. AIE was also more likely to generate findings that were newsworthy to the organization, while the users of Balanced Scorecards felt it simply documented their inputs and offered no other particular insight. However, Balanced Scorecards are still much more widely used than AIE.
A criticism of Balanced Scorecards is that the scores are not based on any proven economic or financial theory, and therefore have no basis in the decision sciences. The process is entirely subjective and makes no provision to assess quantities (e.g., risk and economic value) in a way that is actuarially or economically well-founded.
Another criticism is that the Balanced Scorecard does not provide a bottom line score or a unified view with clear recommendations: it is simply a list of metrics.
Some people also claim that positive feedback from users of Balanced Scorecards may be due to a placebo effect, as there are no empirical studies linking the use of Balanced Scorecards to better decision making or improved financial performance of companies.
The four perspectives
The grouping of performance measures in general categories (perspectives) is seen to aid in the gathering and selection of the appropriate performance measures for the enterprise. Four general perspectives have been proposed by the Balanced Scorecard:
Financial perspective;
Customer perspective;
Internal process perspective;
Innovation and learning perspective.
The financial perspective examines if the company’s implementation and execution of its strategy are contributing to the bottom-line improvement of the company. It represents the long-term strategic objectives of the organization and thus it incorporates the tangible outcomes of the strategy in traditional financial terms. The three possible stages as described by Kaplan and Norton (1996) are rapid growth, sustain, and harvest. Financial objectives and measures for the growth stage will stem from the development and growth of the organization which will lead to increased sales volumes, acquisition of new customers, growth in revenues etc. The sustain stage on the other hand will be characterized by measures that evaluate the effectiveness of the organization to manage its operations and costs, by calculating the return on investment, the return on capital employed, etc. Finally, the harvest stage will be based on cash flow analysis with measures such as payback periods and revenue volume. Some of the most common financial measures that are incorporated in the financial perspective are EVA, revenue growth, costs, profit margins, cash flow, net operating income etc.
The customer perspective defines the value proposition that the organization will apply to satisfy customers and thus generate more sales to the most desired (i.e. the most profitable) customer groups. The measures that are selected for the customer perspective should measure both the value that is delivered to the customer (value proposition) which may involve time, quality, performance and service, and cost, and the outcomes that come as a result of this value proposition (e.g., customer satisfaction, market share). The value proposition can be centered on one of the three: operational excellence, customer intimacy or product leadership, while maintaining threshold levels at the other two.
The internal process perspective is concerned with the processes that create and deliver the customer value proposition. It focuses on all the activities and key processes required in order for the company to excel at providing the value expected by the customers both productively and efficiently. These can include both short-term and long-term objectives as well as incorporating innovative process development in order to stimulate improvement. In order to identify the measures that correspond to the internal process perspective, Kaplan and Norton propose using certain clusters that group similar value creating processes in an organization. The clusters for the internal process perspective are operations management (by improving asset utilization, supply chain management, etc), customer management (by expanding and deepening relations), innovation (by new products and services) and regulatory & social (by establishing good relations with the external stakeholders).
The innovation and learning perspective is the foundation of any strategy and focuses on the intangible assets of an organization, mainly on the internal skills and capabilities that are required to support the value-creating internal processes. The Innovation & Learning Perspective is concerned with the jobs (human capital), the systems (information capital), and the climate (organization capital) of the enterprise. These three factors relate to what Kaplan and Norton claim is the infrastructure that is needed in order to enable ambitious objectives in the other three perspectives to be achieved. This of course will be in the long term, since an improvement in the learning and growth perspective will require certain expenditures that may decrease short-term financial results, whilst contributing to long-term success.
Key performance indicators
According to each perspective of the Balanced Scorecard, a number of KPIs can be used such as:
Financial
· Cash flow
· Return on investment
· Financial result
· Return on capital employed
· Return on equity
It defines the value proposition that the organisation will apply to satisfy customers and thus generate more sales to the most desired customers
Internal business processes
· Number of activities
· Opportunity success rate
· Accident ratios
· Overall equipment effectiveness
Learning and growth
· Investment Rate
· Illness rate
· Internal Promotions %
· Employee Turnover
· Gender Ratios
Further lists of general and industry-specific KPIs can be found in the case studies and methodological articles and books presented in the references section.
Software tools
Many firms choose to use standard office software (such as spreadsheets, word processors, presentation software) to provide the same functions as are provided by commercial software packages - trading the time taken to develop the appropriate templates in the packages and then use them against the typically high cost of commercial Balanced Scorecard software packages/services. Alternatively, several Open Source Packages are available as an alternative to commercial software.
Fuente: Norton y Kaplan. The BSC.
By focusing not only on financial outcomes but also on the operational, marketing and developmental inputs to these, the Balanced Scorecard helps provide a more comprehensive view of a business, which in turn helps organizations act in their best long-term interests.
Organizations were encouraged to measure, in addition to financial outputs, those factors which influenced the financial outputs. For example, process performance, market share / penetration, long term learning and skills development, and so on.
The underlying rationale is that organizations cannot directly influence financial outcomes, as these are "lag" measures, and that the use of financial measures alone to inform the strategic control of the firm is unwise. Organizations should instead also measure those areas where direct management intervention is possible. In so doing, the early versions of the Balanced Scorecard helped organizations achieve a degree of "balance" in selection of performance measures. In practice, early Scorecards achieved this balance by encouraging managers to select measures from three additional categories or perspectives: "Customer," "Internal Business Processes" and "Learning and Growth."
History
In 1992, Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton began publicizing the Balanced Scorecard through a series of journal articles. In 1996, they published the book The Balanced Scorecard.
Since the original concept was introduced, Balanced Scorecards have become a fertile field of theory, research and consulting practice. The Balanced Scorecard has evolved considerably from its roots as a measure selection framework. While the underlying principles were sound, many aspects of Kaplan & Norton's original approach were unworkable in practice. Both in firms associated with Kaplan & Norton (Renaissance Solutions Inc. and BSCOL), and elsewhere (Cepro in Sweden, and 2GC Active Management in the UK), the Balanced Scorecard has changed so that there is now much greater emphasis on the design process than previously. There has also been a rapid growth in consulting offerings linked to Balanced Scorecards at the level of branding only. Kaplan & Norton themselves revisited Balanced Scorecards with the benefit of a decade's experience since the original article.
Use
Implementing Balanced Scorecards typically includes four processes:
1. Translating the vision into operational goals;
2. Communicating the vision and link it to individual performance;
3. Business planning; index Setting
4. Feedback and learning, and adjusting the strategy accordingly.
The Balanced Scorecard is a framework, or what can be best characterized as a “strategic management system” that claims to incorporate all quantitative and abstract measures of true importance to the enterprise. According to Kaplan and Norton, “The Balanced Scorecard provides managers with the instrumentation they need to navigate to future competitive success”.
Many books and articles referring to Balanced Scorecards confuse the design process elements and the Balanced Scorecard itself. In particular, it is common for people to refer to a “strategic linkage model” or “strategy map” as being a Balanced Scorecard.
Although it helps focus managers' attention on strategic issues and the management of the implementation of strategy, it is important to remember that the Balanced Scorecard itself has no role in the formation of strategy. In fact, Balanced Scorecards can comfortably co-exist with strategic planning systems and other tools.
Original methodology
The earliest Balanced Scorecards comprised simple tables broken into four sections - typically these "perspectives" were labeled "Financial", "Customer", "Internal Business Processes", and "Learning & Growth". Designing the Balanced Scorecard required selecting five or six good measures for each perspective.
Many authors have since suggested alternative headings for these perspectives, and also suggested using either additional or fewer perspectives. These suggestions were notably triggered by a recognition that different but equivalent headings would yield alternative sets of measures. The major design challenge faced with this type of Balanced Scorecard is justifying the choice of measures made. "Of all the measures you could have chosen, why did you choose these?" This common question is hard to ask using this type of design process. If users are not confident that the measures within the Balanced Scorecard are well chosen, they will have less confidence in the information it provides. Although less common, these early-style Balanced Scorecards are still designed and used today.
In short, early-style Balanced Scorecards are hard to design in a way that builds confidence that they are well designed. Because of this, many are abandoned soon after completion.
Improved methodology
In the mid 1990s, an improved design method emerged. In the new method, measures are selected based on a set of "strategic objectives" plotted on a "strategic linkage model" or "strategy map". With this modified approach, the strategic objectives are typically distributed across a similar set of "perspectives", as is found in the earlier designs, but the design question becomes slightly less abstract.
Managers have to identify five or six goals within each of the perspectives, and then demonstrate some inter-linking between these goals by plotting causal links on the diagram. Having reached some consensus about the objectives and how they inter-relate, the Balanced Scorecard is devised by choosing suitable measures for each objective. This type of approach provides greater contextual justification for the measures chosen, and is generally easier for managers to work through. This style of Balanced Scorecard has been commonly used since 1996 or so.
Several design issues still remain with this enhanced approach to Balanced Scorecard design, but it has been much more successful than the design approach it superseded.
In the late 1990s, the design approach had evolved yet again. One problem with the "2nd generation" design approach described above was that the plotting of causal links amongst twenty or so medium-term strategic goals was still a relatively abstract activity. In practice it ignored the fact that opportunities to intervene, to influence strategic goals are, and need to be anchored in the "now;" in current and real management activity. Secondly, the need to "roll forward" and test the impact of these goals necessitated the creation of an additional design instrument; the Vision or Destination Statement. This device was a statement of what "strategic success," or the "strategic end-state" looked like. It was quickly realised, that if a Destination Statement was created at the beginning of the design process then it was much easier to select strategic Activity and Outcome objectives to respond to it. Measures and targets could then be selected to track the achievement of these objectives.
In 2007, the 4th Generation was evolved in the work by Hannabarger, Buchman and Economy. They created linkages between the Strategic, Operational and Tactical levels within organizations through Scorecards and Dashboards that provide drill down / up capability to identify sources and root causes for under-performing scorecard metrics. Soon after this work, Kaplan and Norton revised their approach and acknowledged it had lacked the ability to give focus on measures to the here and now, day-to-day operational and tactical levels within organizations that the Hannabarger, Buchman and Economy work provides.
Popularity
Kaplan and Norton found that companies are using Balanced Scorecards to:
· Drive strategy execution;
· Clarify strategy and make strategy operational;
· Identify and align strategic initiatives;
· Link budget with strategy;
· Align the organization with strategy;
· Conduct periodic strategic performance reviews to learn about and improve strategy.
In 1997, Kurtzman found that 64 percent of the companies questioned were measuring performance from a number of perspectives in a similar way to the Balanced Scorecard.
Balanced Scorecards have been implemented by government agencies, military units, business units and corporations as a whole, non-profit organizations, and schools.
Many examples of Balanced Scorecards can be found via Web searches. However, adapting one organization's Balanced Scorecard to another is generally not advised by theorists, who believe that much of the benefit of the Balanced Scorecard comes from the implementation method. Indeed, it could be argued that many failures in the early days of Balanced Scorecard could be attributed to this problem, in that early Balanced Scorecards were often designed remotely by consultants. Managers did not trust, and so failed to engage with and use these measure suites created by people lacking knowledge of the organisation and management responsibility.
Variants, alternatives and criticisms
Since the late 1990s, various alternatives to the Balanced Scorecard have emerged, such as The Performance Prism, Results Based Management and Third Generation Balanced Scorecard. These tools seek to solve some of the remaining design issues, in particular issues relating to the design of sets of Balanced Scorecards to use across an organization, and issues in setting targets for the measures selected.
Applied Information Economics (AIE) has been researched as an alternative to Balanced Scorecards. In 2000, the Federal CIO Council commissioned a study to compare the two methods by funding studies in side-by-side projects in two different agencies. The Dept. of Veterans Affairs used AIE and the US Dept. of Agriculture applied Balanced Scorecards. The resulting report found that while AIE was much more sophisticated, AIE actually took slightly less time to utilize. AIE was also more likely to generate findings that were newsworthy to the organization, while the users of Balanced Scorecards felt it simply documented their inputs and offered no other particular insight. However, Balanced Scorecards are still much more widely used than AIE.
A criticism of Balanced Scorecards is that the scores are not based on any proven economic or financial theory, and therefore have no basis in the decision sciences. The process is entirely subjective and makes no provision to assess quantities (e.g., risk and economic value) in a way that is actuarially or economically well-founded.
Another criticism is that the Balanced Scorecard does not provide a bottom line score or a unified view with clear recommendations: it is simply a list of metrics.
Some people also claim that positive feedback from users of Balanced Scorecards may be due to a placebo effect, as there are no empirical studies linking the use of Balanced Scorecards to better decision making or improved financial performance of companies.
The four perspectives
The grouping of performance measures in general categories (perspectives) is seen to aid in the gathering and selection of the appropriate performance measures for the enterprise. Four general perspectives have been proposed by the Balanced Scorecard:
Financial perspective;
Customer perspective;
Internal process perspective;
Innovation and learning perspective.
The financial perspective examines if the company’s implementation and execution of its strategy are contributing to the bottom-line improvement of the company. It represents the long-term strategic objectives of the organization and thus it incorporates the tangible outcomes of the strategy in traditional financial terms. The three possible stages as described by Kaplan and Norton (1996) are rapid growth, sustain, and harvest. Financial objectives and measures for the growth stage will stem from the development and growth of the organization which will lead to increased sales volumes, acquisition of new customers, growth in revenues etc. The sustain stage on the other hand will be characterized by measures that evaluate the effectiveness of the organization to manage its operations and costs, by calculating the return on investment, the return on capital employed, etc. Finally, the harvest stage will be based on cash flow analysis with measures such as payback periods and revenue volume. Some of the most common financial measures that are incorporated in the financial perspective are EVA, revenue growth, costs, profit margins, cash flow, net operating income etc.
The customer perspective defines the value proposition that the organization will apply to satisfy customers and thus generate more sales to the most desired (i.e. the most profitable) customer groups. The measures that are selected for the customer perspective should measure both the value that is delivered to the customer (value proposition) which may involve time, quality, performance and service, and cost, and the outcomes that come as a result of this value proposition (e.g., customer satisfaction, market share). The value proposition can be centered on one of the three: operational excellence, customer intimacy or product leadership, while maintaining threshold levels at the other two.
The internal process perspective is concerned with the processes that create and deliver the customer value proposition. It focuses on all the activities and key processes required in order for the company to excel at providing the value expected by the customers both productively and efficiently. These can include both short-term and long-term objectives as well as incorporating innovative process development in order to stimulate improvement. In order to identify the measures that correspond to the internal process perspective, Kaplan and Norton propose using certain clusters that group similar value creating processes in an organization. The clusters for the internal process perspective are operations management (by improving asset utilization, supply chain management, etc), customer management (by expanding and deepening relations), innovation (by new products and services) and regulatory & social (by establishing good relations with the external stakeholders).
The innovation and learning perspective is the foundation of any strategy and focuses on the intangible assets of an organization, mainly on the internal skills and capabilities that are required to support the value-creating internal processes. The Innovation & Learning Perspective is concerned with the jobs (human capital), the systems (information capital), and the climate (organization capital) of the enterprise. These three factors relate to what Kaplan and Norton claim is the infrastructure that is needed in order to enable ambitious objectives in the other three perspectives to be achieved. This of course will be in the long term, since an improvement in the learning and growth perspective will require certain expenditures that may decrease short-term financial results, whilst contributing to long-term success.
Key performance indicators
According to each perspective of the Balanced Scorecard, a number of KPIs can be used such as:
Financial
· Cash flow
· Return on investment
· Financial result
· Return on capital employed
· Return on equity
It defines the value proposition that the organisation will apply to satisfy customers and thus generate more sales to the most desired customers
Internal business processes
· Number of activities
· Opportunity success rate
· Accident ratios
· Overall equipment effectiveness
Learning and growth
· Investment Rate
· Illness rate
· Internal Promotions %
· Employee Turnover
· Gender Ratios
Further lists of general and industry-specific KPIs can be found in the case studies and methodological articles and books presented in the references section.
Software tools
Many firms choose to use standard office software (such as spreadsheets, word processors, presentation software) to provide the same functions as are provided by commercial software packages - trading the time taken to develop the appropriate templates in the packages and then use them against the typically high cost of commercial Balanced Scorecard software packages/services. Alternatively, several Open Source Packages are available as an alternative to commercial software.
Fuente: Norton y Kaplan. The BSC.
sábado, 19 de septiembre de 2009
Auditoría de Gestión
¿ Qué es la Auditoría de Gestión ¿
Antecedentes históricos de la Auditoría de Gestión.
La Auditoría existe desde tiempos muy remotos aunque no como tal, debido a que no existían relaciones económicas complejas con sistemas contables.
Desde los tiempos medievales hasta la Revolución Industrial, el desarrollo de la Auditoría estuvo estrechamente vinculado a la actividad puramente práctica y desde el carácter artesanal de la producción el auditor se limitaba a hacer simples revisiones de cuentas por compra y venta, cobros y pagos y otras funciones similares con el objetivo de descubrir operaciones fraudulentas. Así como determinar si las personas que ocupaban puestos de responsabilidad fiscal en el gobierno y en el comercio actuaban e informaban de modo honesto, esto se hacía con un estudio exhaustivo de cada una de las evidencias existentes.
Esta etapa se caracterizó por un lento desarrollo y evolución de la Auditoría. Durante la Revolución Industrial el objeto de estudio comienza a diversificarse se desarrolla la gran empresa y por ende la contabilidad, y a la luz del efecto social se modifica, el avance de la tecnología hace que las empresas manufactureras crezcan en tamaño, en los primeros tiempos se refería a escuchar las lecturas de las cuentas y en otros casos a examinar detalladamente las cuentas coleccionando en las primeras las cuentas "oída por los auditores firmantes" y en la segunda se realizaba una declaración del auditor.
Los propietarios empiezan a utilizar los servicios de los gerentes a sueldos. Con esta separación de la propiedad y de los grupos de administradores la Auditoría protegió a los propietarios no solo de los empleados sino de los gerentes. Ya a partir del siglo XVI las auditorias en Inglaterra se concentran en el análisis riguroso de los registros escritos y la prueba de la evidencia de apoyo. Los países donde más se alcanza este desarrollo es en Gran Bretaña y más adelante Estados Unidos. Ya en la primera mitad del siglo XX de una Auditoría dedicada solo a descubrir fraudes se pasa a un objeto de estudio cualitativamente superior. La práctica social exige que se diversifique y el desarrollo tecnológico hace que cada día avancen más las industrias y se socialicen más, por lo que la Auditoría pasa a dictaminar los Estados Financieros, es decir, conocer si la empresa está dando una imagen recta de la situación financiera, de los resultados de las operaciones y de los cambios en la situación financiera. Así la Auditoría daba respuesta a las necesidades de millones de inversionistas, al gobierno, a las instituciones financieras.
Franklin Enrique expuso en etapas muy recientes, que en la medida en que los cambios tecnológicos han producido cambios en los aspectos organizativos empresariales y viceversa, la Auditoría ha penetrado en la gerencia y hoy se interrelaciona fuertemente con la administración. La Auditoría amplía su objeto de estudio y motivado por las exigencias sociales y de la tecnología en su concepción más amplia pasa a ser un elemento vital para la gerencia a través de la cual puede medir la eficacia, eficiencia y economía con lo que se proyectan los ejecutivos. En el año de 1935, James O. McKinsey, en el seno de la American Economic Association sentó las bases para lo que él llamó "auditoría administrativa", la cual, en sus palabras, consistía en "una evaluación de una empresa en todos sus aspectos, a la luz de su ambiente presente y futuro probable." Viendo ya la necesidad de las revisiones integrales y analizando a la empresa como un todo en 1945, el Instituto de Auditores Internos Norteamericanos menciona que la revisión de una empresa puede realizarse analizando sus funciones. Ya en 1949, Billy E. Goetz declara el concepto de auditoría administrativa, que es la encargada de descubrir y corregir errores de administrativos. Seis años después, en 1955, Harold Koontz y Ciryl O´Donnell, también en sus Principios de Administración, proponen a la auto-auditoría, como una técnica de control del desempeño total, la
cual estaría destinada a "evaluar la posición de la empresa para determinar dónde se encuentra, hacia dónde va con los programas presentes, cuáles deberían ser sus objetivos y si se necesitan planes revisados para alcanzar estos objetivos." El interés por esta técnica llevan en 1958 a Alfred Klein y Nathan Grabinsky a preparar El Análisis Factorial, obra en cual abordan el estudio de "las causas de una baja productividad para establecer las bases para mejorarla" a través de un método que identifica y cuantifica los factores y funciones que intervienen en la operación de una organización.
Y en 1962, William Leonard incorpora los conceptos fundamentales y programas para la ejecución de la Auditoría Administrativa. A finales de 1965, Edward F. Norbeck da a conocer su libro Auditoria Administrativa, en donde define el concepto, contenido e instrumentos para aplicar la auditoría. Asimismo, precisa las diferencias entre la auditoría administrativa y la auditoría financiera, y desarrolla los criterios para la integración del equipo de auditores en sus diferentes modalidades. En 1975, Roy A. Lindberg y Theodore Cohn desarrollan el marco metodológico para instrumentar una auditoría de las operaciones que realiza una empresa; y Gabriel Sánchez Curiel 1987 aborda el concepto de Auditoría Operacional, la metodología para utilizarla y la evaluación de sistemas. En 1989, Joaquín Rodríguez Valencia analiza los aspectos teóricos y prácticos de la auditoría administrativa, las diferencias con otra clase de auditorías, los enfoques más representativos, incluyendo su propuesta y el procedimiento para llevarla a cabo. En 1994, Jack Fleitman S. incorpora conceptos fundamentales de evaluación con un enfoque profundo; muestra las fases y metodología para su aplicación, la forma de diseñar y emplear cuestionarios y cédulas, y el uso de casos prácticos para ejemplificar una aplicación específica.
Para Franklin Enrique, la Auditoría de Gestión surgió de la necesidad para medir y cuantificar los logros alcanzados por la empresa en un período de tiempo determinado. Surge como una manera efectiva de poner en orden los recursos de la empresa para lograr un mejor desempeño y productividad. Desde sus inicios, la necesidad que se le plantea al administrador de conocer en que está fallando o que no se está cumpliendo, lo lleva a evaluar si los planes se están llevando a cabalidad y si la empresa está alcanzando sus metas. Forma parte esencial del proceso administrativo, porque sin control, los otros pasos del proceso no son significativos, por lo que además, la auditoría va de la mano con la administración, como parte integral en el proceso administrativo y no como otra ciencia aparte de la propia administración.
¿Qué es una Auditoría de Gestión?
Según George R. Terry en 1953, en el libro Principios de Administración, señala que "La confrontación periódica de la planeación, organización, ejecución y control administrativos de una compañía, con lo que podría llamar el prototipo de una operación de éxito, es el significado esencial de la auditoría administrativa."Más adelante, Williams P. Leonard en 1962 la Auditoria Administrativa (La Auditoría de Gestión también se conoce con los términos Auditoría Administrativa y Auditoría Operativa) se define como: "examen comprensivo y constructivo de una estructura organizacional de una empresa", o cualquier componente de las mismas, tales como una división o departamento, así como de sus planes y objetivos, sus métodos de operación y la utilización de los recursos físicos y humanos. Mientras que Fernández Arena J.A en 1966 con el libro "La Auditoría Administrativa", sostiene que es la revisión objetiva, metódica y completa, de la satisfacción de los objetivos institucionales, con base en los niveles jerárquicos de la empresa, en cuanto a si estructura, y a la participación individual de los integrantes de la institución.
Consiste en el examen que se realiza en una entidad, para establecer el grado de economía, eficiencia y eficacia en la planificación, control y uso de sus recursos y comprobar la observancia de las disposiciones pertinentes,
con el objetivo de verificar la utilización más racional de los recursos y mejorar las actividades o materia examinadas". La Auditoría de Gestión por su enfoque involucra una revisión sistemática de las actividades de una entidad en relación a determinados objetivos y metas y, respecto a la utilización eficiente y económica de los recursos. Su propósito general puede verse seguidamente:
- Identificación de las oportunidades de mejoras.
- Desarrollo de recomendaciones para promover mejoras u otras acciones correctivas; y.
- Evaluación del desempeño (rendimiento).
También se conoce como la valoración independiente de todas las operaciones de una empresa, en forma analítica objetiva y sistemática, para determinar si se llevan a cabo, políticas y procedimientos aceptables; si se siguen las normas establecidas si se utilizan los recursos de forma eficaz y económica y si los objetivos de la organización se han alcanzado para así maximizar resultados que fortalezcan el desarrollo de la empresa. Como se ven en estos conceptos esta Auditoría responde a los objetivos económicos (utilidad, factibilidad, eficacia, reducción de costos, ganancias), los sociales (crecimiento cualitativo y cuantitativo, competitividad, pleno empleo, reducción de riesgos para la vida) y los ecológicos (mantenimiento del equilibrio y protección del paisaje, utilización económica de los recursos). Aquí existe una fuerte interacción ya que la Auditoría de Gestión evalúa en el nivel empresarial el cumplimiento exitoso de los objetivos antes mencionados, viendo a la organización empresarial como un gran sistema que todas sus partes se encuentran en una estrecha relación funcional.
Tomado de monografías.com
Antecedentes históricos de la Auditoría de Gestión.
La Auditoría existe desde tiempos muy remotos aunque no como tal, debido a que no existían relaciones económicas complejas con sistemas contables.
Desde los tiempos medievales hasta la Revolución Industrial, el desarrollo de la Auditoría estuvo estrechamente vinculado a la actividad puramente práctica y desde el carácter artesanal de la producción el auditor se limitaba a hacer simples revisiones de cuentas por compra y venta, cobros y pagos y otras funciones similares con el objetivo de descubrir operaciones fraudulentas. Así como determinar si las personas que ocupaban puestos de responsabilidad fiscal en el gobierno y en el comercio actuaban e informaban de modo honesto, esto se hacía con un estudio exhaustivo de cada una de las evidencias existentes.
Esta etapa se caracterizó por un lento desarrollo y evolución de la Auditoría. Durante la Revolución Industrial el objeto de estudio comienza a diversificarse se desarrolla la gran empresa y por ende la contabilidad, y a la luz del efecto social se modifica, el avance de la tecnología hace que las empresas manufactureras crezcan en tamaño, en los primeros tiempos se refería a escuchar las lecturas de las cuentas y en otros casos a examinar detalladamente las cuentas coleccionando en las primeras las cuentas "oída por los auditores firmantes" y en la segunda se realizaba una declaración del auditor.
Los propietarios empiezan a utilizar los servicios de los gerentes a sueldos. Con esta separación de la propiedad y de los grupos de administradores la Auditoría protegió a los propietarios no solo de los empleados sino de los gerentes. Ya a partir del siglo XVI las auditorias en Inglaterra se concentran en el análisis riguroso de los registros escritos y la prueba de la evidencia de apoyo. Los países donde más se alcanza este desarrollo es en Gran Bretaña y más adelante Estados Unidos. Ya en la primera mitad del siglo XX de una Auditoría dedicada solo a descubrir fraudes se pasa a un objeto de estudio cualitativamente superior. La práctica social exige que se diversifique y el desarrollo tecnológico hace que cada día avancen más las industrias y se socialicen más, por lo que la Auditoría pasa a dictaminar los Estados Financieros, es decir, conocer si la empresa está dando una imagen recta de la situación financiera, de los resultados de las operaciones y de los cambios en la situación financiera. Así la Auditoría daba respuesta a las necesidades de millones de inversionistas, al gobierno, a las instituciones financieras.
Franklin Enrique expuso en etapas muy recientes, que en la medida en que los cambios tecnológicos han producido cambios en los aspectos organizativos empresariales y viceversa, la Auditoría ha penetrado en la gerencia y hoy se interrelaciona fuertemente con la administración. La Auditoría amplía su objeto de estudio y motivado por las exigencias sociales y de la tecnología en su concepción más amplia pasa a ser un elemento vital para la gerencia a través de la cual puede medir la eficacia, eficiencia y economía con lo que se proyectan los ejecutivos. En el año de 1935, James O. McKinsey, en el seno de la American Economic Association sentó las bases para lo que él llamó "auditoría administrativa", la cual, en sus palabras, consistía en "una evaluación de una empresa en todos sus aspectos, a la luz de su ambiente presente y futuro probable." Viendo ya la necesidad de las revisiones integrales y analizando a la empresa como un todo en 1945, el Instituto de Auditores Internos Norteamericanos menciona que la revisión de una empresa puede realizarse analizando sus funciones. Ya en 1949, Billy E. Goetz declara el concepto de auditoría administrativa, que es la encargada de descubrir y corregir errores de administrativos. Seis años después, en 1955, Harold Koontz y Ciryl O´Donnell, también en sus Principios de Administración, proponen a la auto-auditoría, como una técnica de control del desempeño total, la
cual estaría destinada a "evaluar la posición de la empresa para determinar dónde se encuentra, hacia dónde va con los programas presentes, cuáles deberían ser sus objetivos y si se necesitan planes revisados para alcanzar estos objetivos." El interés por esta técnica llevan en 1958 a Alfred Klein y Nathan Grabinsky a preparar El Análisis Factorial, obra en cual abordan el estudio de "las causas de una baja productividad para establecer las bases para mejorarla" a través de un método que identifica y cuantifica los factores y funciones que intervienen en la operación de una organización.
Y en 1962, William Leonard incorpora los conceptos fundamentales y programas para la ejecución de la Auditoría Administrativa. A finales de 1965, Edward F. Norbeck da a conocer su libro Auditoria Administrativa, en donde define el concepto, contenido e instrumentos para aplicar la auditoría. Asimismo, precisa las diferencias entre la auditoría administrativa y la auditoría financiera, y desarrolla los criterios para la integración del equipo de auditores en sus diferentes modalidades. En 1975, Roy A. Lindberg y Theodore Cohn desarrollan el marco metodológico para instrumentar una auditoría de las operaciones que realiza una empresa; y Gabriel Sánchez Curiel 1987 aborda el concepto de Auditoría Operacional, la metodología para utilizarla y la evaluación de sistemas. En 1989, Joaquín Rodríguez Valencia analiza los aspectos teóricos y prácticos de la auditoría administrativa, las diferencias con otra clase de auditorías, los enfoques más representativos, incluyendo su propuesta y el procedimiento para llevarla a cabo. En 1994, Jack Fleitman S. incorpora conceptos fundamentales de evaluación con un enfoque profundo; muestra las fases y metodología para su aplicación, la forma de diseñar y emplear cuestionarios y cédulas, y el uso de casos prácticos para ejemplificar una aplicación específica.
Para Franklin Enrique, la Auditoría de Gestión surgió de la necesidad para medir y cuantificar los logros alcanzados por la empresa en un período de tiempo determinado. Surge como una manera efectiva de poner en orden los recursos de la empresa para lograr un mejor desempeño y productividad. Desde sus inicios, la necesidad que se le plantea al administrador de conocer en que está fallando o que no se está cumpliendo, lo lleva a evaluar si los planes se están llevando a cabalidad y si la empresa está alcanzando sus metas. Forma parte esencial del proceso administrativo, porque sin control, los otros pasos del proceso no son significativos, por lo que además, la auditoría va de la mano con la administración, como parte integral en el proceso administrativo y no como otra ciencia aparte de la propia administración.
¿Qué es una Auditoría de Gestión?
Según George R. Terry en 1953, en el libro Principios de Administración, señala que "La confrontación periódica de la planeación, organización, ejecución y control administrativos de una compañía, con lo que podría llamar el prototipo de una operación de éxito, es el significado esencial de la auditoría administrativa."Más adelante, Williams P. Leonard en 1962 la Auditoria Administrativa (La Auditoría de Gestión también se conoce con los términos Auditoría Administrativa y Auditoría Operativa) se define como: "examen comprensivo y constructivo de una estructura organizacional de una empresa", o cualquier componente de las mismas, tales como una división o departamento, así como de sus planes y objetivos, sus métodos de operación y la utilización de los recursos físicos y humanos. Mientras que Fernández Arena J.A en 1966 con el libro "La Auditoría Administrativa", sostiene que es la revisión objetiva, metódica y completa, de la satisfacción de los objetivos institucionales, con base en los niveles jerárquicos de la empresa, en cuanto a si estructura, y a la participación individual de los integrantes de la institución.
Consiste en el examen que se realiza en una entidad, para establecer el grado de economía, eficiencia y eficacia en la planificación, control y uso de sus recursos y comprobar la observancia de las disposiciones pertinentes,
con el objetivo de verificar la utilización más racional de los recursos y mejorar las actividades o materia examinadas". La Auditoría de Gestión por su enfoque involucra una revisión sistemática de las actividades de una entidad en relación a determinados objetivos y metas y, respecto a la utilización eficiente y económica de los recursos. Su propósito general puede verse seguidamente:
- Identificación de las oportunidades de mejoras.
- Desarrollo de recomendaciones para promover mejoras u otras acciones correctivas; y.
- Evaluación del desempeño (rendimiento).
También se conoce como la valoración independiente de todas las operaciones de una empresa, en forma analítica objetiva y sistemática, para determinar si se llevan a cabo, políticas y procedimientos aceptables; si se siguen las normas establecidas si se utilizan los recursos de forma eficaz y económica y si los objetivos de la organización se han alcanzado para así maximizar resultados que fortalezcan el desarrollo de la empresa. Como se ven en estos conceptos esta Auditoría responde a los objetivos económicos (utilidad, factibilidad, eficacia, reducción de costos, ganancias), los sociales (crecimiento cualitativo y cuantitativo, competitividad, pleno empleo, reducción de riesgos para la vida) y los ecológicos (mantenimiento del equilibrio y protección del paisaje, utilización económica de los recursos). Aquí existe una fuerte interacción ya que la Auditoría de Gestión evalúa en el nivel empresarial el cumplimiento exitoso de los objetivos antes mencionados, viendo a la organización empresarial como un gran sistema que todas sus partes se encuentran en una estrecha relación funcional.
Tomado de monografías.com
miércoles, 9 de septiembre de 2009
Benchmarking
El benchmarking es una de las principales técnicas de análisis administrativo para reunir elementos de decisión en las organizaciones, conozcamos como funciona...
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